Aceh, Nusantara and the Islamic Khilafah (Part 2)

Forms of Relationship

Portuguese continued to expand its influence not only in the Middle East but also in the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese King, Emanuel I, openly conveyed their main purpose of the expedition by saying, “Certainly, the purpose of the search for the sea lane to India is to spread Christianity, and plunder the wealth of the East”. ¹⁹ The Uthmani Khilafah did not stay silent. In 925H/1519 AD, the Portuguese in Malacca was shocked by the news of the deployment of the fleet of ‘Uthmani’ to liberate the Muslim in Malacca from the infidel occupation. Definitely, the local Muslims were delighted by the news. ²⁰

When Sultan Ala al-Din al-Qahhar Riayat Shah came to the throne in Aceh in 943 H/1537 AD, he wasaware of the needs of Aceh to request the Uthamani military assistance. Such assistance was needed not only to expel the Portuguese from Malacca but also to conquer other areas, particularly the rural areas of Sumatra, such as the area of Batak. Al-Kahar used the forces of Turks, Arabs and Abysinia – ²¹ 160 soldiers from Turkey plus 200 soldiers from Malabar formed an elite group of the Armed Forces of Aceh. Furthermore, Al-Kahhar deployed the military personnel to overpower the Batak in the interior of Sumatra in 946 H/1539 AD. Mendez Pinto, who watched the war between the forces of Aceh with Batak, reported the return of the fleet under the command of a Turk named Hamid Khan, a nephew of the Uthmani Pasha in Cairo. ²²

A historian of the University of Kebangsaan Malaysia, Lukman Thaib, acknowledges the assistance of the Uthmani Khilafah to conquer  the surrounding region of Aceh. According to Thaib, it is an expression of solidarity with the Muslims who enabled the Turkey to attack directly against the surrounding territories of Aceh. ²³ Moreover, the Turks built a military academy in Aceh called ‘Askeri Beytul Mukaddes’ which was changed into ‘Askar Baitul Makdis’ which is more acceptable with the Acehnese dialect. The military education was central to the birth of the heroes in the history of Aceh and Indonesia. ²⁴ Thus, the relationship between Turkey with Aceh was very close. Aceh was as if a part of the territory of Turkey. The problems of Aceh Muslims were regarded as the Turkish domestic issue that should be resolved.

Nur Al-Din Al-Raniri in Bustan Al-Salathin narrated that Sultan Ala al-Din Riayat Shah al-Qahhar sent an envoy to Istanbul to face “Sultan of Rum”. The name of the envoy is Huseyn Effendi who is fluent in Arabic. He came to Turkey after performing hajj. ²⁵ In June 1562 AD, the envoy of Aceh arrived in Istanbul to ask for the Uthmani military assistance to deal with the Portuguese. When the ambassador was able to escape from the Portuguese attack and reached Istanbul, he managed to get help from Turkey, which helped raise Aceh military power which effectively conquered Aru and Johor in 973 H/ H/1564 AD. ²⁶

The relationship between Aceh amd the Uthmani Khilafah continued primarily to maintain the security in Aceh from the Portuguese attack. According to an Aceh writer, the second successor of Al-Qahhar namely Sultan Mansyur Shah (985-998 H/1577-1588 AD) renewed political and military ties with the Uthmani Khilafah. ²⁷ This report was verified by Portuguese historical sources. Bishop Jorge de Lemos, the Secretary of the Portuguese Viceroy of Goa in 993 H/1585 AD, reported to Lisbon that Aceh had been back in touch with the Uthmani Khilafah to seek for military assistane to launch a new offensive against the Portuguese. Aceh’s next ruler, Sultan Ala al-Din Riayat Shah (988-1013 H/1588-1604 AD) was also reported to continue political relationship with Turkey. It was reported that the Uthmani Khilafah had even sent a service medal to the Sultan of Aceh, and gave permission to ships of Aceh to fly the Uthmani flag. ²⁸

The warships used by Aceh in wars consisted of small but swift boats and large ships. Large ships or junks that sailed the seas to Jeddah were from Turkey, India, and Gujarat. The last two areas were parts of the Uthmani Khilafah. According to Court, the ships were quite large, measuring 500 to 2000 tons. ²⁹ Other big ships originated from Turkey had cannons and other weapons used to attack the invaders who disrupt the Muslims in Nusantara. ³⁰ Aceh truly emerged as a great power feared by Portuguese because it was supported by weapons experts from Turkey as the assistance of the Khilafah to Aceh.³¹

According to sources in Aceh, Sultan Iskandar Muda (1016-1046 H/1607-1636 AD) sent a small fleet of three ships which reached Istanbul after two and a half year voyage through the Cape of Good Hope. When the mission returned to Aceh, they were given the supply of guns, 12 military experts, and a letter which was the resolution of friendship between the Uthmani and the Acehnese. These twelve military experts were called the heroes of Aceh. They were also said to be so skillful that they could also help Sultan Iskandar Muda, not only in building a formidable fortress in Banda Aceh, but also in building a sultanate palace. ³²

The impact of the success of the Uthmani Khilafah oin facing the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean was very big. Acehnese were able to maintain the holy places and the roads leading to the pilgrimage journey; maintaining sustainability of the exchange of Indian goods with European traders in the market of Aleppo, Cairo, and Istanbul, as well as keeping the business lanes going between India and Indonesia and the Far East through the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea. ³³

The relations between some sultanates in the archipelago with the Uthmani Khilafah in Turkey was evident such as the arrival of Islam in Buton (South Sulawesi) in 16th century. The genealogy of the Kings of Buton showed that after converting to Islam, Lakilaponto was inaugurated to become ‘sultan’ with the title of Qaim ad-Din (religious enforcer) inaugurated by Sheikh Abd al-Wahid from Makkah. Since then, he was known as Sultan Marhum. And since then, the name of sultan has been revered in Friday prayers. According to local sources, the use of the title of ‘sultan’ comes after the approval obtained from the Sultan of Turkey (there was also a report of the Ruler from Makkah). It was Sheikh Wahid who announced this news (on this subject) to the Sultan of Rum (Khalifah) in Turkey. ³⁴ This reality suggests that Makkah was under the Turkish leadership, and Buton had a simple ‘structural’ relationship with the Uthmani Khilafah through the mediation of Sheikh Wahid from Makkah.

Meanwhile, in the area now known as West Sumatra, the ruler of Minangkabau called himself  “Aour Allum King of Kings” and was believed to be the Sultan’s brother of Ruhum (Rum). The people of Minangkabau believe that their first ruler was the descendant of the Roman Khilafah (Uthmani) who was assigned to be the Sharif in the region.³⁵  It gives information that the sultanate had a relationship with the Uthmani Khilafah.

In addition to  sultanate in Nusantara (Indonesia) which had direct contact with the Uthmani Khilafah, some others had indiret contact, meaning they made contact through other sultanates, for example, the sultanate of Ternate. In 1570’s, during Soya-soya War against the Portuguese, the sultan of Ternate, Baabullah, was assisted by some sangaji from Nusa Tenggara an area famous for its good fleet and Demak with its Javanese army. Likewise, with its mighty 30.000 warships blockaded the ports of Sumatra and the delivery of food, and ammunition of Portuguese through the sea lane between India and Malacca Strait. The enemy of Ternate was also the enemy of Demak.³⁶

These facts show that Islamic sultanates in the archipelago has a relationship with the Uthmani Khilafah. The forms of relationship were in trade, military, politics, propaganda, and power.

The response of the Muslim of Indonesia to the Unification of the Ummah

During the difficult times of the Islamic Khilafah, when some of its regions began to be occupied by the invaders, there were some efforts to strengthen the Islamic unity which was led by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. He stated, “We must strengthen our ties with the Muslims in other parts of the world. We shall come closer and be together very intimately. There is no hope in the future unless with the unification.” ³⁷ This is an idea that is known as Pan-Islamism. The effort to strengthen the Islamic unity also took place in Indonesia (Dutch East Indies).

Snouck Hourgronje, the Dutch colonial adviser, always passed on the information to the Dutch East Indies colonial government that there was a movement of pan-Islamism to persuade the kings and princes in the Dutch East Indies (the Muslims) to come to the Palace of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in Istanbul. The short-term goal to accomplish in Batavia, Snouck continued, was to gain equal status of the Arabs and then the equal status between the Muslims and the Europeans. If this goal was reached then it would be no longer difficult for the Muslims to get a higher position than the Europeans, which will further restrict them at all. The Dutch East Indies Colonial Government was very worried if the Muslims knew that Sultan Abdul Hamid II provided scholarships for the Muslim youth. With the financial assitance from Sultan Abdul Hamid II, they could get access to the highest education and to obtain scientific knowledge and thereby a deep awareness of the superiority of every Muslim over the infidels, the awareness and the humiliation that should have not accepted by letting themselves to be governed by infidels. If they had completed their studies and had made pilgrimage to Makkah, they were expected to play a role in developing the Islamic thoughts in their local areas. ³⁸

The efforts to strengthen this unity were intensified. By 1904, there had been 7 to 8 consuls (‘envoys’) who had been posted by the Uthmani Khilafah in Dutch East Indies. ³⁹ Among the activities of these consuls were distributing the copies of Qur’an on behalf of the Sultan, and printing the works of Islamic theology in Malay language printed in Istanbul. Among the books was the Tafser of Qur’an whose page title mentions “Sultan of Turkey King of all Muslims”.⁴⁰  The term ‘King’ actually refers to the word of al-Malik which means Ruler, and the term ‘all Muslims’ refers to the Muslims. So, the title made the declaration of the Khalifah that he was the ruler of the Muslim world. This suggests that the Uthmani Khilafah continued to strive to unify the Malay sultanates to be part of it, including through the distribution of al-Quran.

In response to the unification movement by the Islamic Uthmani Khilafah, there were some organizations in the Dutch East Indies which supported the movement. Abu Bakr Atjeh mentioned that among these organizations was the Islamic organization of Jam’iyat Khoir founded in July 17, 1905 by some Arab descents. The essays of the Islamic movements in the Dutch East Indies were published in newspapers and magazines in Istanbul, including in Al-Manar Magazine. Khalifah Abdul Hamid II, who lived  in Istanbul had also sent his envoy to Indonesia, named Ahmed Amin Bey, to fulfill the request of the organization to examine the condition of the Muslims in Indonesia. As a result, the Dutch East Indies Colonial Government disbanded the Arabs to certain areas. ⁴¹

Other Islamic organizations that responded positively to this unification was Sarekat Islam. The flag raising of the Uthmani flag at the National Congress of Sarekat Islam in Bandung in 1916, as  symbol of solidarity among the Muslims and an opposition to colonialism, demonstrated this response. At that time, one effort made by the Uthmani Khilafah was to spread the call of jihad on behalf of the Khalifah of all Muslims, including in Indonesia, known as Java. Among the calls were:

“Dear brothers and sisters, look at how other countries colonized the Islamic world. India which is a wide country and has a population of one hundred million Muslims was colonized by a small group of infidels from England. 40 million Muslims of Java were colonized by the Dutch. Morocco, Algiers, Tunisia, Egypt and Sudan have been suffered under the grips of the enemies of Allah and His Messenger. This inludes Kuzestan, which has been under the pressures from the enemies of the faith. Persians were broken up. In fact, the throne of khilafah was always opposed by the God’s enemies in all sorts of ways “.⁴²

This reality gives a description of how the Uthmani Khilafah provided supports and assistance to the Muslims in Indonesia and considered it as a whole body, even by calling to liberate themselves from the enemies of the faith. In this case, the Muslims responded positively to the efforts to strengthen the unity of the Muslim world. []

Footnote:

19 Dr. Yusuf ats-Tsaqafi, Mawqif Uruba min ad-Daulat al-Utsmaniyyah, pp. 37.

20 Saleh Obazan, op.cit. pp. 41

21 Marwati Djuned Pusponegoro (eds.), op.cit. pp. 33.

22 Azyumardi Azra, op.cit. pp. 42.

23 Lukman Thaib, “Aceh Case: Possible Solution to Festering Conflict,” Journal of Muslim Minorrity Affairs, Vol. 20, No. 1, tahun 2000 pp. 106

24 Metin Inegollu (the Ambassador of Turkey), The early Turkish-Indonesian Relations, Aceh dalam Restrospeksi dan Refleksi Budaya Nusantara (Editor Hasan Muarif Ambary dan Bachtiar Aly), Informasi Taman Iskandarmuda (INTIM), Jakarta, tt, pp. 53-55.

25 Ibid, pp. 53.

26 Azyumardi Azra, op.cit. pp.. 43-44.

27 H.M. Zainuddin, Tarich Atjeh dan Nusantara (Medan: Pustaka Iskandar Muda, 1961) pp. 272-77; lihat juga, op.cit. pp. 44.

28Azyumardi Azra, op.cit. pp. 44-45.

29 Marwati Djuned Puspo dan Nugroho Notosusanto, op.cit. pp. 56.

30Ibid. pp. 96.

31 Ibid. pp. 257.

32Azyumardi Azra, op.cit. pp. 45.

33 Ali Muhammad Ash-Shalabi, Bangkit dan Runtuhnya Khilafah Utsmaniyah (Terj.), Pustaka Al Kautsar, tahun 2003, pp. 258-259.

34 Abd. Rahim Yunus, Posisi Tasawuf dalam Sistem Kekuasaan di Kesultanan Buton pada Abad ke-19, INIS Jakarta, tahun 1995, pp. 10.

35 W. Marsden, The History of Sumatra, London: Thomas Paine & Sons, 1783, 272, 283 dikutip oleh Ayzumardi, 2004, op.cit. pp. 33.

36 RZ. Leirissa, Shalfiyanti, dan Restu Gunawan, Ternate Sebagai Bandar Jalur Sutra, Jakarta: Ilham Bangun Karya, tahun 1999, pp. 59-60.

37 Mudzkirat as-Sulthan Abdul Hamid ats-Tsani, Pengantar oleh Dr. Muhammad Harb, Dar al-Qalam, 1412H/1991M, pp. 23.

38Hamid Al-Gadri, Islam dan Keturunan Arab dalam Pemberontakan melawan Belanda, tahun1996, Mizan Bandung, pp. 132-152.

39 Snouck Hurgronje, op.cit. pp. 1691.

40 Ibid, pp. 1740.

41 Abu Bakar Atjeh, Salaf, Gerakan Salaf di Indonesia. Pertama, Jakarta, pp. 103-104.

42 H. Aqib Suminto, Politik Islam Hindia Belanda, tahun 1991, LP3ES Jakarta, pp. 81-82, dan 219.